Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Project - Essay Example Due to the introduction of Garnier product, coloring has produced 1.4 billion dollars value of big business. People ranging from 18-24 years are mainly targeted by the product. Due to the Garnier introduction, retailers have felt good concerning the hair category future. Garnier has shown a well-built stand in the international market by getting a lot of profit. The sales of the Olay Regenerist Micro-sculpting cream moisturize in the Australian market is $15. In addition, the Superstructure cream goes for $15. Many Garnier Skin Naturals Youthful Radiance Multi-action Night creams are priced at $8 in the Australian market while most of the Nivea Visage products are been sold at $10. It is one of the successful skin care products in the world currently. Garnier is reliable and has a very well built brand name that is famously known globally. On the other hand, Garnier mainly puts more stress on the natural attractiveness of individuals. By using celebrities in marketing of Garnier, it has enabled it to be a strong brand in the market. Strength of the product is the good financial background of the company that leads in the advertising of the product. The products issued by the Garnier Company are not difficult when using them and good quality performance is achieved from the product. According to drugstore (2012), one of the garnier’s products named Fructis prevents the hair from having end splits. On the other hand, the product maximizes shine on the hair. The Fructis goes on and protects the hair against any damage. It is also trying to update the launch of its products from time to time. The product on the other hand has brightening actions that are re freshing to all its users (drugstore, 2012). During its launch in the market, the product has tried to preserve market leadership in skin and hair beauty products. Customers have been served efficiently and Garnier has tried to be a market leader with

Fundament of management Info systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fundament of management Info systems - Essay Example This calls for more mass mails being sent by the company to a large number of prospective customers to ensure at least a good amount of sales from this method. Another issue is that the mails might not be sent due to lack of internet and the mails might contain viruses that might disrupt the end user or recipient’s information system or computer. The mails often end up being treated as spam mails making the intended message not to be effectively conveyed. For the case of thick catalog system, it has been evident that the system is expensive for it to reach numerous prospective customers. Information if not efficiently conveyed using this method because it’s not guaranteed that the respondents will actually turn up and substantive sales realized from the adverts. It is also necessary to buy the list of prospective customers from the government information agencies, a list which sometimes is not up to date. The Applebee’s has applied several good advertising and selling strategies that has made it successful. It has made its advertising campaign more strong and aggressive. It has also shuffled the items on its menu adding some while removing others. It has also embarked on improving its image to attract customers. It has also embarked on aligning its products in such a way that customers get products in specific groups e. g clothes are found in one place while utensils found in another. This strategy is working for them and they are making sales more than ever

From a social psychological point of view

From a social psychological point of view Group behaviour (how the individual affects a group and vice-versa) has been widely studied in social psychology but has been hard to theorise (Brown, 2007). Within social psychology there are many social psychological perspectives that have used different theoretical frameworks to study group behaviour. Although each perspective is in agreement that social categorisation (the way an individual and others are classified part of the same or different social groups) and social identity (the way that being part of a social group can give individuals a sense of self) are important in group membership (Phoenix, 2007), the way they are both treated in each perspective varies. This essay will show this by using the cognitive social perspective (namely the social identity theory-SIT) and the critical discursive perspective and explain their ontological assumptions and different approaches to social categorisation and social identity. This essay will argue that from a social psychological poi nt of view, group membership is not primarily a cognitive matter. It will also argue that social and individual sides of group membership should not be seen as dichotomies but as interactive, dynamic and influenced by power relations. The cognitive social approach has an ontological assumption that people are information processing individuals (Hollway, 2007) whose thought processes are shaped by and create the world that they live in (The Open University, DVD 1, 2007). There are many different traditions within this approach, although this essay will concentrate on the social identity tradition. The social identity tradition was designed to break away from previous cognitive miser traditions of the approach that assumed that the social was just something that affected the individual (Brown, 2007). Although it shared the same ontological assumption as the cognitive miser tradition and assumed that individuals had limited and fixed cognitive mechanisms (Dixon, 2007), it also differed from it because it saw individuals as socialised thinkers where group membership played a part in structuring the individuals thoughts (The Open University, DVD 1 2007). The social identity tradition led Tajfel and Turner (1979, cited in Brown, 2007) to develop the social identity theory (SIT). SIT attempted to use a combined social and cognitive approach to studying inter-group relations; it saw the social as more than just something that affects individuals. It attempted to find out how people identified with groups and how this affected their judgements (Brown, 2007). SIT explained how group membership and inter-group relations are based on self categorisation, social comparison and the construction of a shared self definition (Brown, 2007). SIT is currently one of the leading theories in group processes; although this has led to power relations where group identification is still seen as mostly a cognitive process. The focus on cognitive mechanisms also stresses that group processes are still seen as individualistic and so misses out a lot of the influence that society has on the individual or group. In contrast to SIT, the critical discursive perspective argues that discourse and social practices are what make up an individual and their social world; individuals are seen as socially constructed, continent and situated (The Open University, DVD 1, 2007). Unlike SIT that studies how cognitive mechanisms allow an individual to identify with a group; the critical discursive perspective looks at how groups and group identities are created by the individual through discourse and the different ways that these groups are dynamic, flexible and changeable. Categorisation is therefore seen as an active and out there rather than a process that is internal (Brown, 2007). Akin to the cognitive social perspective, there are different approaches in the critical discursive perspective, for example, some researchers accept the reality of given categories (Billig, 2002, cited in Brown, 2007) whilst others argue that categories are socially constructed (Potter and Reicher, 1987, cited in Phoenix, 2 007). Power relations also blight the critical discursive perspective as discourses can be interpreted differently and each discourse available within each culture is politically and ideologically constructed. But, the critical discursive perspective does go beyond the individual-society dualism to look at how the individual and social come together to construct groups. SIT and the critical discursive perspective see categorisation and group membership differently. SIT sees categorisation and group membership as distorted and individualistic. It was developed from Tajfels (1957, cited in Brown, 2007) early coin experiments which led him to conclude that by combining a continuous dimension of judgement (coin value) with a clear-cut category dimension (size difference) would resulted in a cognitive bias and therefore a faulty judgement within and between the categories. Tajfel (1959, cited in Brown, 2007) saw that this bias could be used to explain how individuals perceive others using cognitive variables, like intelligence, for the continuous dimension of judgement and social variables, like nationality, for the clear-cut category dimension. Like the coins, Tajfel (1959, cited in Brown, 2007) hypothesised that individuals would stereotype group members and exaggerate inter-group differences. Tajfel and Turner (1970, cited in Brown, 2007) undertook some minimal group experiments to test this hypothesis. These experiments were purely cognitive; there was no reason for the groups to dislike or be competitive towards each other and therefore this shows how the cognitive bias and distortion can occur. The groups were formed by dividing participants according to a random preference. Participants were asked to distribute money to one of two participants; they only knew of each others group membership. Like hypothesised, the participants tended to reward people who belong to the same group as themselves at the expense of those who belong to the rival group, even if this was at the expense of maximising their own groups profit. So, in SIT individuals categorise themselves and others into groups then identify with the groups that heighten their self esteem and then compare their group with other groups by contrasting the good things about their group to the bad things about the other groups (Brown, 2007). Tajfel and Turner (1969, cited in Brown, 2007) argued that if an individual identifies themselves as being part of a category and consider themselves as part of that category then they are part of that category. But, biases are inevitable in SIT because the categories an individual uses serve a purpose (to preserve self esteem). As the categories used in SIT are social, this means that where the individual lives can affect their categorisation mechanisms (Brown, 2007). For example, to heighten the individuals self esteem, the group the individual sees him/herself as having membership to have to select a relevant out-group to compare itself favourably with. The selection of this out-group depends on what is important to the society that the individual is living in at the time (Brown, 2007). Therefore group membership is created by categorisation, a cognitive mechanism, and the social merely interacts with this mechanism. So therefore SIT emphasises individual, internal processes of group membership and how group membership occurs is primarily a cognitive matter. The critical discursive perspective, however, sees categorisation and group membership as more as something individuals do through language in everyday interaction. This can be seen in the way that social categories are constructed in discourse, for example, Potter and Reicher (1987, cited in Phoenix, 2007) undertook discourse research using communities. They used the social categorisation theory as a basis for their research which argued that if an individual perceived themselves to be part of a group, they behaved as a stereotypical member of the group when with the group; their personality shifted from an individual emphasis to a social emphasis which would be reflected in their discourse. Potter and Reicher (1987, cited in Phoenix, 2007) analysed discourses of community that circulated after the St Pauls riot in Bristol in the 1980s and saw that and saw that many different discourses were given of the same event; they called these different versions community repertoires. In these different community repertoires they saw that the use of the term community and who was a member of this group was very fluid, inconsistent and flexible. The same account could construct the term community in different ways, for example, the police could be constructed as being part of the community (which makes the riot an intra-group conflict) or the police could be seen as outside of the community (which makes the riot an inter-group conflict). The community could also be seen as a reference to things like lifestyle or the local residents or even as another term for the black community (Potter and Reicher, 1987, cited in Phoenix, 2007). This approach sees groups in terms of individual and social relationships which move away from the individual-social dichotomies of the cognitive social approaches. Therefore group membership is created by discourse which is not a cognitive mechanism, so groups are constructed. So therefore the critical discursive perspective emphasises external, individual and societal processes of group membership and so how group membership occurs is not a cognitive matter. How SIT and the critical discursive perspective study prejudice can expand on how they each view group processes, how they see the individual and society and how they see power relations within group processes. SIT argues that categorisation encourages individuals to see the good in their in-group and compare it to the bad in the out-group which leads people to prejudiced thinking (Dixon, 2007). SIT recognises that there are social aspects of inter-group processes, like assimilation, but at the heart of SIT are the cognitive aspects of group processes (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). SIT suggests that individualistic cognitive mechanisms are the cause of prejudice and inter-group processes. Power relations also occur with SIT as its dominance may have affected how inter-group relations are viewed. The critical discursive perspective, however, argues that how individuals talk about groups and construct group identities is a better way to view the different ways that individuals categorise e ach day (Brown, 2007; DD307 Course Team, 2007). The critical discursive perspective takes into account how an individual uses discourses and how society is involved in inter-group processes (DD303 Course Team, 2007). The critical discursive perspective argues that how an individual makes sense of their reality is affected by their culturally available linguistic resources (Potter and Wetherell, 1987, cited in Dixon, 2007). In this approach, individuals can only categorise and form prejudice because their society shares a language which enables them to construct identities and social relations (Dixon, 2007). Power relations are created in this approach depending on the discourses used by individuals and groups to construct a reality that is of best interest to them (Cooper and Kaye, 2007). This approach does not believe that stereotypes are caused by cognitive mechanisms (Hamilton and Troiler. 1986, cited in Dixon, 2007) they believe that collective belief systems causes the conflicts seen between groups (Eidelson and Eidelson, 200 3, cited in Dixon, 2007). Billig (2002, cited in Brown, 2007) moved from SIT to the critical discursive perspective and began to find limitations within SIT. For example, he saw that SIT assumed that categories that individual used to self categorise were fixed, stable and universal, whereas he argued that the categories used in SIT for prejudice were culturally determined, active, flexible, dynamic and constructed through language so cannot be explained in terms of psychological processes. SIT also assumes that the way individuals identify with groups is to help their self esteem when Billig (2002, cited in Brown, 2007) argued that this could not provide an explanation of extreme hate or the motivation for violence, hate or bigotry. But there have also been criticisms with the critical discursive perspective approach to groups, for example, Dixon (2007) noted that it neglects emotion and cognition in favour of language details, this does not make sense to psychology which is about the mind. It would also be difficult to believe that strongly felt emotions are only social constructions through interaction with others via language. The critical social perspective also does not explain how new groups are formed, for example, Emos, nor can they explain social change. There must also be a cognitive process that produces discourse as that is where meaning comes from; it cannot only come from external discourse. SIT (representing cognitive social psychology) and critical discursive perspective have shown the extent to which group membership can be seen as primarily a cognitive matter from a social psychological point of view. SIT seems to rely on inner cognitive mechanisms for group membership whereas the critical discursive perspective seems to rely on outer constructions. As SIT suggests, the cognitive mechanisms of group membership seem to be important for understanding the world, although like the critical discursive perspective suggests, how categories are constructed using discourse processes are important for this understanding too. So therefore, from a social psychological point of view group membership is not primarily a cognitive matter, but instead group membership can be seen as both a combined cognitive and social matter. This essay has also shown that social and individual sides of group membership should not be seen as dichotomies but as dynamic, interactive and influenced by power relations. Word Count: 2157 (excluding title). Brown, S. D. (2007) Intergroup processes: Social Identity Theory in Langdridge, D. and Taylor, S. (2007) (eds) Critical readings in Social Psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. DD307 Course Team (2007) DD307 Project Booklet in Horton-Salway, M. (2007) (ed), Social Psychology: Critical Perspectives on Self and Others, Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Dixon, J. (2007) Prejudice, conflict and conflict reduction in Hollway, W., Lucy, H. and Phoenix, A. (2007) (eds) Social Psychology Matters. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Hollway, W, (2007) Social psychology: past and present, in Hollway, W., Lucy, H. and Phoenix, A. (2007) (eds) Social Psychology Matters. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Phoenix, A. (2007) Intragroup processes: entitativity in Langfridge, D. and Taylor, S. (2007) eds Critical readings in Social Psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. The Open University (2007) in Social Psychology: Critical Perspectives on Self and Others, DVD 1, DD307 (2007), The Open University.

Monopolistic Competition in the Retail Industry Essay -- Microeconomic

Monopolistic Competition in the Retail Industry Defining the Market The retail industry is comprised of thousands of different brands and companies. However each is defined by its quality of make and materials used. Abercrombie & Fitch, Timberland, and Guess are all well-known and respected brand names. However if prices were to exceed what people are willing to pay, then the consumers would alter their preferences and buy from another brand. Therefore we are dealing with a monopolistic competition. Monopolistic competition is often defined as: a common form of industry structure characterized by a large number of firms, none of which can influence market price by virtue of size alone; some degree of market power is achieved by firms producing differentiated products. New firms can enter and established firms can exit with ease ) I. ?common form of the industry structure characterized by a large number of firms none of which can influence market price by virtue of size alone ? New firms can enter and established firms can exit with ease.?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Every year hundreds of new designers emerge into the retail industry. No matter what one?s style of clothing, there are dozens of other brands to choose from should one company?s price go beyond the household?s expectation of price. Each company is on a careful balance of price and cannot exceed the other company?s prices beyond what the consumer sees as reasonable. Moreover, firms can enter and exit easily because there are no tariffs and resources are plentiful. This is the competitive side of monopolistic competition. II. some degree of market power is achieved by firms producing differentiated products   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  However the retail firm is also monopolistic because of the added aspect that each company does have some degree of market power through their differentiation of products. One way firms differentiate themselves is through the consumer and the way they fashion their products. The consumer determines the success/failure of a company. A major problem firms face is how to accommodate to the changing preferences of the consumer. Guess was at one point similar to Levi?s, a brand of jeans limited to the department store. However in 2002, Guess signed on Marciano, a prominent high-end European designer, and sales have boomed since. Now, Guess is a well-known, popular brand among teenagers and ... ...l be most receptive. Timberlands are successful in areas with cold, long winters like Ohio but would make minimal profit in area such as Florida. Bibiliography 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Case, Karl E. & Ray C. Fair. Principles of Microeconomics. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2004. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ?Guess-Marciano,? 2004. < http://www.marciano.com> 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ?Glossary of Economic Terms? Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. Understanding the Terms Symbol = a code comprised of letters used as a unique identification of the stock 52 week High = the highest price reached during the last 52 weeks 52 week Low = the lowest price reached during the last 52 weeks Dividend = taxable payment declared by a company?s board of directors & given to its shareholders out of the company?s current/retained earnings Dividend Yield = yield a company pays its shareholders in the form of dividends; calculated by the amount of dividends paid per share over the course of the year divided by the stock price P/E Ratio = (aka the price earnings ratio) most common measure of how pricey the stock is; equivalent to a stock?s market capitalization divided by its post tax earnings over a year?s period

Atticus Finch †To Kill a Mockingbird Essay

Throughout chapters 1-17 in To Kill A Mockingbird, Atticus Finch is shown as a very courageous and non-judgemental person. At times in the book he is also a very caring father but he can be strict at times. His name, Atticus is also a very polite man and always shows courtesy to the people he meets. Many people that live in Maycomb know Atticus is a gentleman and is very polite. He also has a conscience when he says that if he didn’t defend a Negro then he would be ashamed and wouldn’t be able to hold his head up in town. Harper Lee portrayed Atticus as a very courageous man. Atticus is courageous because he takes up a case no one else dares to take, the Tom Robinson case. He was willing to risk his honour and dignity to help the poorly accused black man. Although he gets a lot of abuse from various people, for example Mrs Dubose when she says, â€Å"Atticus is a nigger-lover†, he still doesn’t step down from the case and ignores people. He even put his Children in the way when Scout nearly gets in to a fight against Cecil Jacobs when Cecil Jacobs says that â€Å"Scout Finch’s daddy defends niggers†. Scout even takes abuse from her own family when her cousin, Francis, says that Atticus is a â€Å"nigger-lover† which really puts Scout on edge and she starts a fight with Francis. Atticus is also a very non-judgemental person and will always look at things from both sides of the story. In chapter 3 Atticus says, â€Å"You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view until you climb into his skin and walk around in it†. Here, Atticus is saying that you can’t judge something until you see things from their point of view, until you see what they’re experiencing. Atticus is a very caring father but a strict one too. He is very caring when Scout comes home from her first day in school and complains that Miss Caroline (the teacher) doesn’t want Atticus and Scout reading together any more. Atticus decides to make a deal with Scout, â€Å"If you’ll concede the necessity of going to school, we’ll go on reading every night just as we always have†. This shows that he cares about Scout concerns and decides to make a deal to make her happy. Although caring he is also a strict father and when Jem loses her cool and destroys Mrs Dubose’s flowers he makes Jem go back and apologies. To do something like this to a sick lady is inexcusable. I strongly advise you to go down and have a talk with Mrs Dubose†. As well as a good father he is also a very polite and well-mannered man. For example, in the court trial with Mayella, Atticus wouldn’t call her Mayella but Miss Mayella but Mayella took it like Atticus was mocking her. Judge Taylor had to calm her down by saying, â€Å"Mr Finch is always courteous to everybody†. This is saying that Atticus is always polite and courteous to everyone he meets. He is also very polite to Mrs Dubose even though Mrs Dubose shout insults to him every time he walks by. Atticus would sweep off his hat, wave gallantly to her and say, ‘Good evening, Mrs Dubose! You look like a picture this evening. ’† This shows that even though Mrs Dubose is horrid to him, he still says hello and is polite to her. Atticus is also very aware of his own reputation and tries to be morally good as much as he can be. He does this by helping Tom Robinson in a case they would probably lose. Scout asks him why he is defending Tom Robinson and Atticus replies, â€Å"The main one is that if I didn’t, I couldn’t hold my head up in town†. This shows he has morals that he follows so that he can have respect not for others but himself as well. Throughout chapters 1-17 Atticus is shown as a courageous person. As well as being courageous he is non-judgemental especially when he says, â€Å"You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view until you climb into his skin and walk around in it†. Atticus is also portrayed as a caring father when Scout is having trouble at school; Atticus is there to support her. Harper Lee has overall made Atticus a very polite, wise and respected man in To Kill A Mockingbird.

Critical Review of the Literature of the role that Dietary Factors Play in Preventing Type 2 Diabetes Essay

Critical Review of the Literature of the role that Dietary Factors Play in Preventing Type 2 Diabetes’ Introduction Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) is a rapidly growing international public health issue. It has been reported that 285 million 20–79 year olds had the disease in 2010 worldwide and this is estimated to grow to 439 million by 2030. (19) T2D has been associated with a variety of other health problems such as cardiovascular disease, blindness and shortened life expectancy. (4,40) The prevalence of the disease is associated with obesity and overweight as well as a ‘Western’ dietary pattern and lack of exercise. (17) It has been reported that approximately 80% of people who develop T2D are obese or overweight prior to diagnosis.(8) Diabetes is a preventable disease, (19) with weight loss being identified as one of the most powerful interventions. (4) Diet and physical activity (PA) are effective interventions in attaining this (25) and have also been linked with reduction in risk independently. (40) The primary focus of this paper will look at diet and review the evidence on whether diet alone can help to prevent T2D. As a secondary theme it will also look at the evidence that diet can help to prevent the development of and help to control symptoms after T2D has been diagnosed. 8 papers will reviewed, (26-33) with a purpose of identifying some practical, evidence based dietary guidelines. Dietary guidelines are easier to follow when they indicate specific foods and patterns rather than nutrients and properties of foods and greater compliance can be achieved . (29,31) For this reason the studies reviewed focus on specific foods and diet styles rather than macronutrients and or micronutrients which do not translate into dietary guidelines as easily. Literature Search A literature review using the following databases was carried out; Pubmed, Web of Science, Embase, CINAHL, British Nursing Index and Medline. The following keywords were used in various combinations; Diet, prevention, food, T2D, interventions, dietary, fruit, vegetables, nutrition. Other resources such as ‘Google scholar’ and NHS Choices ‘behind the headlines’ were also utilised. Because T2D is an international issue, papers from around the world were considered. The criteria for inclusion was less than 10 years old, the intervention had to be a specific food group or diet style, measuring new incidents of T2D, or changes is symptoms associated with T2D and adults as the sample group. Diet as a tool to prevent T2D 6 Studies looked at whether diet can prevent T2D. Please refer to Table 1 for details of all the studies. Villegas et al (26) and Bazzano et al (27) looked at fruit, vegetable and fruit juices consumption and fruit and vegetable consumption respectively. Both of the studies used women only in their sample groups, limiting the generalizability of the findings to the wider population. (5) Dietary assessment was achieved through Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQ) in both studies. Villegas et al (26) provided evidence of their FFQ having been validated, (21) however reported using it only 3 times within a 4.6 year timeframe, questioning the accuracy of their collected data. Bazzano et al (27) data collection was retrospective in that the FFQ was designed in 1984 and followed up at 4 year intervals. The concern with such a dated questionnaire is that it has not accounted for different trends that have occurred over time, affecting the accuracy of the results. Villegas et al (26) confirmed incidence of T2D through subjects meeting the criteria set out by the American Diabetic Association.(2) Bazzano et al (27) used criteria set out by National Diabetes Data Group for all participants up to and including 1997.(16) The Criteria for participants after 1998 was set out by the American Diabetic Association. The reason for this was due to new criteria being published at this time. (2) The main difference being the plasma glucose reading changing from 7.8mmol/l or more to 7.0mmol/l or more. (9) The Criteria Set out by the World Health Organisation in 1985, (24) could have been used to confirm incidence of T2D in the Bazzano et al (27) study . It was published 1 year after baseline data was taken and would have resulted in a higher percentage of participants being diagnosed with the same criteria, increasing consistency and reliability in the results. Villegas et al (26) reported that a higher consumption of vegetables was associated with a reduced risk of T2D. Participants who had a higher vegetable intake were also less likely to smoke and have higher levels of PA, both factors that can reduce the risk of T2D questioning the causality of the reduction in risk. (4) Participants with a higher fruit intake were also less likely to smoke and have higher levels of PA. There was no association made between fruit intake and risk of T2D therefore it is possible to consider that confounders like PA and smoking may not have effected the level of risk to T2D in this study. Bazzano et al (27) reported an inverse association between whole fruit and green leafy vegetable intake. Women who had a higher intake of fruit and vegetables were older, less likely to smoke and more likely to have higher levels of PA. Fruit Juice was positively associated with incidence of T2D which could be due to high sugar content.. (22) Also participants who had the highest fruit juice intake had the lowest levels of PA which is associated with increased risk of T2D. (20)Salas-Salvado et al (28) and Martinez-Gonzalez et al (29) both studied the risk of T2D and adherence to the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet). A MedDiet is characterised by high consumption of fruit, vegetables, whole grains, olive oil, nuts, pulses, fish and reduced consumption of red and processed meats, high fat dairy refined gains and foods high in sugar and starch. (11) Salas-Salvado et al (28) compared adherence to a MedDiet supplemented with either olive oil or nuts with a low fat diet (control group). The supplemented items in the MedDiets were given to participants. Participants in the control group were given non dietary gifts to encourage adherence. There are concerns about the ethics of using incentives and gifts in research. (6)Within this study the use of gifts appears innocuous, the concern lies with how adherence to the diet is reliably measured. When participants are given vital ingredients, this will influence their dietary intake, making it difficult generalize the results. (13) The sample population in this study were older and had at least 3 risk factors relating to cardiovascular disease again making it more difficult to generalise results. Participants were given 7 goals, including;  increasing vegetable and fruit consumption, reducing red and processed meat and increasing the consumption of either olive oils or nuts. The control group were asked to reduce all types of fat. Results showed that participants in the MedDiet groups had a greater reduced risk of T2D. Risk was reduced by 51% in the olive oil group and 52% in the nut group. These findings are backed up by other studies. (38-39) Diabetes incidence was lower in those who attained ≠¥ 4 of the 7 goals. PA levels and changes in weight did not differ through all 3 groups, although the participants in the both the MedDiet groups were associated with higher levels of PA. This study was carried out on Spanish participants, who traditionally follow a MedDiet. The control group may have had a strong adherence to a MedDiet naturally, which could impact on the reliability of the results. Martinez-Gonzalez et al (29) used participants who were nurses and university graduates. Prevalence in T2D is associated with lower socioeconomic status, (1) so by using the participants from a higher socioeconomic group may bias the findings. (13) Participants were not excluded if they had Diabetes at baseline. Data was collected via FFQ which consisted of 136 items with 9 responses ranging from never to more than 6 times a day. Points were allocated to determine a score indicating level of adherence. Questions covered areas such as cooking methods, supplements and fats and oils. This FFQ goes into a lot of detail to obtain the most information it can about participants diets, increasing the validity of the data. However reliability is compromised as participants are asked to recall food intake from the previous year decreasing the accuracy of data collected. (5) The results indicated a significant reduction in risk of developing T2D in those who with strong adherence to the MedDiet after adjustment for age and sex. Participants with a score of ≠¥ 6 had an 83% reduction. Although participants in this group had the highest levels of physical activity, which is a known factor in decreasing the risk of T2D, they also had a higher baseline prevalence for increased risk factors for Diabetes such as age higher BMI and higher blood pressure. This adds weight to the findings the MedDiet can reduce the risk of developing T2D. Fung et al (30) and VanDam et al (31) looked at more generalised dietary  patterns. VanDam et al (31) used a 131 item FFQ specifying specific foods, portion sizes and frequency of intake. Over a space of 12 years data on food intake was collected 3 times. In order to make these results more reliable data collection should have occurred more frequently. The participants were all male health professionals making the sample group quite specific reducing the ability to generalise the findings to the wider population. (13) Foods were classified into groups based on nutritional profiles. Factor analysis was then applied in order to identify food patterns. Two dietary patterns were identified ‘Prudent’ and ‘Western’. Prudent was characterised by high consumption of vegetables, fish and whole grains and Western by high consumption of red and processed meat, high-fat dairy and eggs. Men with higher Western patterns were younger, more likely to smoke and did less PA. Men with higher Prudent diet patterns were older less likely to smoke and engaged in more PA. The Prudent diet was associated with a modest reduction in risk in developing T2D with wholegrain foods having the highest inverse association. Fruit and vegetables were not considerably associated with reduced risk. The Western diet was associated with considerably higher risk of developing T2D. Processed meat, other processed foods and refined grains indicating the most significant association. This could indicate that cutting out specific foods could me more beneficial in reducing the risk of T2D than increasing intake of other foods. Fung et al (30) used participants from the Nurses Health Study which was established in 1976. This is the same study from which Bazzano et al (27) took their participants. The same FFQ was used in this study with baseline also being the 1984 FFQ as this was the expanded 116 item version. The information obtained was then used and classified in the same way as the VanDam et al (31) study producing the same Prudent and Western dietary patterns. The results from this study focus mainly on the Western diet pattern. Similarly to the men in the VanDam et al (31) study, women who scored high in the Western diet pattern were more likely to smoke. The results also mirrored that of the VanDam et al (31) study in that it reported an increased risk of developing T2D and a Western diet pattern. This study investigated the characteristics of the Western dietary pattern further and found positive associations between red and processed meats and  the development of T2D. This could also add weight to the previous comment that cutting out specific foods, such as red and processed meats could be more beneficial than adding other food groups in preventing T2D. A replica study using the same FFQ and Prudent and Western diet pattern and using a sample group that consisted of both men and women could add strength to the finds of both of these studies.(5) Diet as a tool in preventing the development of and giving greater control over the symptoms of T2D Elhayany et al (32) compared a low carbohydrate Mediterranean diet (LCM) a traditional Mediterranean diet (TM) and the 2003 American Diabetic Association diet (ADA) on health parameters. Glycemic control for people with T2D diagnosis was one of the outcome measures. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of the 3 groups, given recommendations for daily intake on nutritional elements such as calories and protein and advised to engage in 30-45 minutes of PA a week. The LCM and TM diets included only low glycemic index carbohydrates, with LCM having a lower %. The TM and ADA diets had the same % of carbohydrates but the ADA also included mixed glycemic index carbohydrates. FFQ were used asking the participants to recall the last 24hour food intake. It is felt this data will be more accurate than those studies asking participants to recall food intake from the previous year, making results more reliable. Data was collected 3 times over a 12 month period. Results showed all groups had reduced weight and BMI with no significant difference. All 3 dietary interventions reduced factors that increase glycemic control such as HbA1c and triglyceride levels. The LCM diet was the most effective in increasing glycemic control. Esposito et al (33) compared a LCM and a low fat calorie restricted diet (LFD) on glycemic control and the delay on needing to commence antihyperglycemic medication in people newly diagnosed with T2D. The LCM diet was rich in fruit vegetables and whole grains and low in red meat. There was also a requirement that no more than 50% of calories was from  carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates rather than low GI carbohydrates were stipulated. Some complex carbohydrates can have high GI levels, which are associated with increased risk of Diabetes. (10) The LFD was based on American Heart Association guidelines. (12) Participants were randomized into 1 of 2 groups asked to keep food diaries and given guidelines on increasing physical activity. Data was collected through reviews of the diary. Food diaries could provide more reliable information than FFQ if they are filled out daily. There is still a risk that they could be filled out inaccurately, and that participants may modifies their intake as a result of keeping a diary. The study reported that both groups lost weight, but reduction was greater in the LCM. Overall there was a significant difference in the need to commence antihyperglycemic medication between the LCM and the LFD; 44% and 70% respectively. Potentially this result could have shown more significance if low GI carbohydrates were stipulated instead of complex carbohydrates. Discussion The findings coming out of this review indicate that certain dietary interventions maybe helpful in reducing the risk of developing T2D and may also help with glycemic control after diagnosis.(26-33) Some food groups and dietary patterns provide more consistent evidence than others. The results regarding fruit intake and risk of T2D are inconsistent within this review with Villegas et al (26) reporting no association between fruit and risk reduction, where as Bazzano et al (27) did. High consumption of fruit and vegetables are a major component in the Mediterranean diet and the Prudent dietary pattern, both of which were associated with an inverse association. Vegetables are more consistently associated with a reduced risk, in this review and a recent meta-analysis, (3) particularly green leafy vegetables. (27) More research studying the effects of fruit and vegetables separately is needed. This inconsistency is reflected in other studies and systematic reviews. (7) High intake of fr uit and vegetables has often been associated with higher PA levels within this review, (26-29,31) which is a risk reducing factor in itself. Part of the problem could be that many studies that look at dietary interventions are prospective cohort studies and  although they can provide an association they can not prove whether the cause is due to the dietary item or another factor such as PA or weight loss. More experimental designed research is needed so that a direct cause between diet and the reduction of T2D can be established. (13) While it is unclear the exact role that fruit and vegetables play in reducing the risk of T2D there is an abundance of evidence that a diet rich in fruit and vegetables is beneficial in overall health (34-35) and weight reduction, (23) so including them as part of a healthy diet may indirectly help to reduce the risk of T2D. Red and processed meat has been more consistent in its positive association to developing T2D. Fung et al (28) and VanDam et al (29) found strong associations between consumption and increased risk of T2D. One of the characteristics of The Mediterranean diet is the absence or reduction of red and processed meats, and this diet has been associated with reduced risk. These findings were backed up in a recent meta-analysis paper (18) studying 3 cohorts who’s conclusion suggests that red meat consumption, particularly processed red meat is linked to higher risk of developing T2D. Meta-analysis produces level 1 evidence, providing increased confidence in the conclusions and good grounding for providing evidence based information such as dietary guidelines.(13) Diets high in red and processed meats are linked to high cholesterol (14) which is one of the leading causes of death in people with T2D (15) and other serious health conditions such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. (36) So while increasing fruit and vegetable intake may have a more beneficial and holistic effect on health, the same could be said for reducing the intake of red and processed. Salas-Salvado et al (28) produced higher level evidence being a randomised control trial giving more weight to their findings;(5) following a MedDiet can reduce the risk of T2D. One of the studies that looked at the effect of diet after diagnosis, (32) was also a randomised control trial providing the same level of evidence and weight to their findings that LCM can delay the need for hyperglycaemic medication therefore having a positive beneficial effect on T2D. Although these two studies looked at the effect of diet after diagnosis it could be reasonable to suggest that following the dietary  patterns associated with these findings, prior to diagnosis could help prevent T2D as they are similar dietary patterns to two of the other studies.(28-29) While the findings from this review indicate that making changes to ones diet may help to reduce the risk of Diabetes occurring, it also suggests that implementing the same kind of dietary changes may help with glucose control after Diabetes has been diagnosed, preventing the further development of the disease and the need for antihyperglycemic medication. (32-33) One study has implied that dietary changes in the form of energy restriction can actually reverse beta cell failure and insulin resistance, symptoms found in T2D. (37) It is a very small study and the dietary intervention is severe energy restriction making it difficult to generalise to the wider population, but it is a controlled study and could provide interesting findings that further research could be built upon, that dietary interventions may be able to reverse the symptoms of T2D. Collating this information together it seems reasonable to suggest that making positive changes to dietary habits could have benefits pre and post T2D diagnosis. Dietary Guidelines The findings from the 8 studies in this review can not all be discussed in detail due to word limitation. However recurring themes seem to be occurring, providing information on which to base a set of guidelines. Going by these findings the following guidelines are recommended: Reduce intake of red meat and processed meat (all colours) Substitute these with white meats and fish Reduce intake of other processed foods Reduce intake of refined grains Reduce intake of high sugar foods and drinks including fruit juices Carbohydrate intake should be based on items with a low GI score Increase intake of olive oil Increase nut intake Increase intake of pulses Increase wholegrain intake Increase vegetable intake especially green leafy vegetables Increase fruit intake A Mediterranean style diet is characterised by much of this advise and is therefore a recommended diet style to follow. Conclusion The prevalence of T2D is growing around the world. It has been associated with many other health problems and reduces quality of life and life expectancy. It is a preventable disease and diet is one of the ways in which this disease can be combated. Dietary guidelines have been recommended from the findings of this review, based on following a Mediterranean diet, reducing intake of red and processed meats and other processed foods and increasing intake of foods such as fruit and vegetables, wholegrains and olive oils and nuts. While it has been acknowledged that more research needs to be carried out to further examine the cause and effect between diet and T2D, it is reasonable to suggest that one may find these dietary changes beneficial in helping to reduce the risk of T2D and other areas of health, possibly helping to indirectly reduce risk of T2D. It is also reasonable to suggest that a change in diet may bring beneficial changes once diagnosis has been given. Table 1 Reference list 1. Agardh E, Allenbeck P, Hallqvist J, Moadi T and Sidorchuk A. Type 2 Diabetes and Socioeconomic Position: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology. 2011: 40(3) 804-818 2. 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